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Mary Shelley's Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, first published in 1818 when the author was only nineteen, emerged from a famous ghost-story challenge issued during a rainy summer in 1816 at the Villa Diodati near Lake Geneva, where Shelley, her lover (later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, and John Polidori spent nights reading German horror tales aloud. Unable to sleep after a discussion of galvanism and the possibility of reanimating corpses, Mary experienced a waking nightmare of a “pale student of unhallowed arts” watching in horror as his assembled creature stirred to life; she declared the next morning, “I have found my story.” Written amid personal grief (the recent deaths of her first child and half-sister), financial strain, and the social scandal of her elopement with the still-married Percy Shelley, the novel began as a short tale but grew into a profound meditation on creation, responsibility, ambition, and isolation. Initially released anonymously in a small edition of 500 copies with a preface by Percy Shelley, it was widely assumed to be his work until the 1831 revised edition finally credited Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley as the sole author, securing her place as one of the earliest and most influential voices in science fiction and Gothic literature.

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Candide, ou l’Optimisme (1759) is a satirical novella by the French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, written in response to the devastating Lisbon earthquake of 1755 and the optimistic philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz, popularized by Alexander Pope’s line “Whatever is, is right.” Penned in just three days amid Voltaire’s exile in Switzerland, the work follows the naïve young Candide as he is expelled from an idyllic Westphalian castle and thrust into a world of war, natural disasters, religious persecution, and human cruelty, all while clinging to his tutor Pangloss’s doctrine that we live in “the best of all possible worlds.” Through rapid-fire adventures across Europe, South America, and the Middle East—including the utopian El Dorado and the slave markets of Surinam—Voltaire mercilessly mocks blind optimism, fanaticism, and metaphysical justifications for suffering, culminating in the famous maxim “We must cultivate our garden.” Instantly banned in France for its irreverence, Candide became a bestseller, cementing Voltaire’s reputation as the era’s sharpest critic of dogma and champion of reason, tolerance, and practical humanism.

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Animal Farm, published in 1945 by George Orwell, is a satirical novella that serves as an allegorical critique of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent rise of Stalinism, using a seemingly simple tale of barnyard animals who overthrow their human farmer to establish a society based on equality, only to see it devolve into a new form of tyranny under the pigs’ leadership; inspired by Orwell’s observations of totalitarian regimes and his disillusionment with Soviet communism, the story distills complex political betrayal, propaganda, and corruption into a concise fable that warns against the perversion of revolutionary ideals, remaining a timeless commentary on power dynamics in any system.

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