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Climate change is now widely accepted as one of the biggest global challenges, influencing not only temperatures but also how water moves through the environment. Around the world, patterns of rainfall and snowfall—known collectively as precipitation—are changing. These shifts affect rivers, lakes, groundwater, and even the timing of floods and droughts.

Precipitation changes can vary by region: some areas are becoming wetter, while others are drying out. These changes have strong effects on drainage basins, the land areas where all the water that falls eventually drains into a river or lake. The way a drainage basin reacts to changing precipitation depends on its climate, geology, vegetation, and human activity. Scientists are studying these systems to predict how rainfall changes might affect river flow, groundwater levels, and overall water balance in places such as deserts, temperate plains, rainforests, and mountains.

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Venezuela and the Global Geography of Oil

Oil, often referred to as “black gold,” is one of the most crucial resources in our modern world. Understanding its geography can help us grasp its impact on economies, politics, and our environment. This introduction will explore where oil is found, how it is extracted, and its significance on a global scale.

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Collecting Population Data in Developed and Developing Countries

Counting the heads

Accurate population data is a fundamental resource for governments worldwide, whether in developed or developing countries. It provides essential insights into the size, distribution, and characteristics of populations, enabling informed decision-making and effective planning across multiple sectors.

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This podcast examines how well the world is doing, cutting carbon emissions.

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Rainforest deforestation is not confined to the Amazon
Rainforest deforestation is not just a problem in the Amazon; it affects tropical forests across the globe. In 2024 and 2025, record-breaking deforestation has been reported in Southeast Asia, Central Africa, and other parts of South America. For example, Indonesia and Malaysia have seen their primary rainforest losses slow, but the Congo Basin, which contains the world’s second-largest rainforest after the Amazon, has reached its highest-ever rates of untouched forest loss. Agricultural expansion for crops like soy and palm oil, cattle ranching, illegal logging, and especially wildfires driven by climate change have been key causes. In Bolivia, forest loss has increased almost fivefold since 2020, driven by drought, fires, and policies promoting cash crops and livestock.​

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China, home to over 1.4 billion people, stood as the world’s most populous country until recently, surpassed by India in 2023. Its demographic trajectory, however, presents a mounting challenge that threatens to reshape the nation’s economic and social fabric profoundly. After decades of sustained population growth, which fuelled rapid industrialisation and urban expansion, China is now encountering a steep demographic transition characterised by a rapidly aging population and a declining birth rate.

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The comparison of London and Mumbai illustrates how the issues of urbanisation are universal but are shaped and expressed in drastically different ways by a city’s stage of development. London, as a post-industrial city, grapples with issues of social inequality, gentrification, and the challenges of managing a highly regulated, yet ageing, infrastructure. Its environmental challenges are being met with sophisticated policy tools and technological solutions. In stark contrast, Mumbai, as a rapidly urbanising EDC city, faces more fundamental challenges, from extreme poverty and a lack of basic services to environmental crises rooted in rapid, often unregulated, growth.

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Air masses and the inter-tropical convergence zone

The inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is where the trade winds converge; it is an area of uplift of air. The air that converges on the ITCZ does not have the differences in temperature and density that are typical of convergence at the polar front, and therefore there are no weather fronts. Equatorial weather, despite this, is far from placid. Heating the tropical air can cause instability and periods of heavy rainfall, which is of vital importance to some tropical regions. This rainfall occurs when mT (maritime Tropical) air is drawn in over the land but, when the source region is a continent, dry weather persists. This conflict between mT and cT (continental Tropical) is played out each year over the west coast of Africa.

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