Today, bony animals are some of the most diverse organisms on Earth, but it wasn’t always that way. This episode, we explore what features distinguish vertebrates from their closest relatives, and we dive into the abundant evidence from genetics, embryology, and the fossil record that gives us a glimpse at how our distant ancestors came to be.

In the news: swimming hands, early life, Dunkleosteus jaws, and Neanderthal noses

Time markers: Intro & Announcements: 00:00:00 News: 00:05:35 Main discussion, Part 1: 00:42:55 Main discussion, Part 2: 01:21:55 Patron question: 02:05:55

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The Intro and Outro music is “On the Origin of Species” by Protodome. More music like this at http://ocremix.org

Musical Interludes are "Professor Umlaut" by Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com). Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0